Abu Bakr - the First Muslim Caliph

Born to a wealthy family, Abu Bakr was a successful merchant with a reputation for honesty and kindness. Tradition has it that, having long been a friend to Muhammad, Abu Bakr immediately accepted him as a prophet and became the first adult male to convert to Islam. Muhammad married Abu Bakrs daughter Aishah and chose him to accompany him to Medina. Shortly before his death, Muhammad asked Abu Bakr to offer up a prayer for the people. This was taken as a sign that the Prophet had chosen Abu Bakr to succeed him. After Muhammads death, Abu Bakr was accepted as the first deputy of the Prophet of God, or caliph. Another faction preferred Muhammads son-in-law Ali as caliph, but Ali eventually submitted, and Abu Bakr took over governance of all Muslim Arabs. As Caliph, Abu Bakr brought all of central Arabia under Muslim control and was successful in spreading Islam further through conquest. He also saw to it that the Prophets sayings were preserved in written form. The collection of sayings would be compiled into the Quran (or Quran or Koran). Abu Bakr died in his sixties, possibly from poison but just as likely from natural causes. Before his death he named a successor, establishing a tradition of government by chosen successors. Several generations later, after rivalries led to murder and war, Islam would be split into two factions: the Sunni, who followed the Caliphs, and the Shiite, who believed that Ali was the proper heir of Muhammad and would only follow leaders descended from him. Also Known As El Siddik or Al-Siddiq (The Upright) Noted For Abu Bakr was the closest friend and companion of  Muhammad  and the first Muslim caliph. He was one of the first men to convert to Islam and was chosen by the Prophet as his companion on the  Hijrah  to Medina. Places of Residence and Influence Asia: Arabia Important Dates Born:  c. 573 Completed  Hijrah  to Medina:  Sept. 24, 622​ Died:  Aug. 23, 634 Quotation Attributed to Abu Bakr Our abode in this world is transitory, our life therein is but a loan, our breaths are numbered and our indolence is manifest.

Two Kinds - 1095 Words

Two Kinds is a wonderful little short story about a immigrant Chinese woman in the mid 1950’s to early 1960’s that moved to Chinatown in California to give herself a better opportunity to make it in America. In the story we see the Amy’s mother as a woman who already has dealt with her fair share of pain and disappointment. Jeng-mei mothers entire family seemed to have been wiped out before she came to America from China Jeng-mei explains â€Å" she had come to San Francisco in 1949 after losing everything in China: her mother and father, her home, her first husband, and two daughter, twin baby girls. But she never looked back with regret.† This was the type of woman Amy’s mother was diligent, unwavering, focus that there could be a†¦show more content†¦I won’t let her change me†. This is where struggle rears its ugly head in her and her mother’s relationship Jeng-mei not being from China lacked an obedience that her counterpart may have had because she was an American child. You see Jeng-mei’s mother did not take into consideration her child being an American was probably not going to be as obedient as other Chinese girls were. Jeng-mei’s mother reason for coming to America was to take advantage of all America had to offer but I don’t think Amy’s mother realized that America gave her daughter her own mind. In conclusion we see through the rest of the story that there was more conflict with the two. Jeng-mei’s mother buys a piano for her daughter to learn how to play and become a prodigy at the piano. Mrs. Tan traded cleaning house with Mr. Chong the ir deaf neighbor who used to teach music. Amy starts to slack because her music teacher was deaf and not able to truly hear what Amy was playing. This was reflected in the recital and utterly bombed in front her parent, family, and friends. Amy’s mother was disappointed but when Jeng-mei felt that this would be her escape and her mother would not bother her about this prodigy thing she was sadly mistaken Jeng-mei’s mother did not waver from this way of thinking. Jeng-mei then has a fit and becomes like a typical American child and becomes very disrespectful toward her mother and Amy’s mother and herShow MoreRelatedTwo Kinds2009 Words   |  9 Pagess story Two Kinds is a battle of wills between the narrator, a young Chinese American girl, and her mother, a Chinese immigrant. Two Kinds is a coming-of-age story, in which the narrator, Jing-mei, struggles to forge her own sense of identity in the face of her strong-willed mother s dream that she become a prodigy. Jing-mei is caught between her Chinese mother s traditional ideas about how to raise a daughter, and her own development as a Chinese American girl straddling two cultures. Read MoreTwo Kinds822 Words   |  4 PagesID# 1723801 English 103-276 January 17, 2011-01-17 Two Kinds Amy Tan In the short story â€Å"Two Kinds†, Amy Tan uses the narrator’s point of view to share a mothers attempt to control her daughters dreams and ambitions. Tan`s short story is an example of how differing personalities cause struggles between a parent and child. Children often fall victim to a parent trying too hard or expectations being too high, and in the case of Two Kinds, we see Jing Mei’s mother trying to live her life throughRead MoreTwo Kinds1409 Words   |  6 PagesThe story starts off with the daughter narrating the story talking of her mothers tragedy in China; The mother who lost her mother, father, husband , and her two twin babies was trying to start over and give her child the American dream. The daughter the one telling the story was very as the story began about becoming famous. The mother on the other hand goes to all lengths to try to find her daughters talents. The characters in the story are the mother who played a huge role, although her nameRead MoreEssay on Two Kinds1194 Words   |  5 PagesThe story â€Å"Two Kinds,† written by Amy Tan, has a plot that many people can relate to while growing up as a child. The theme of the story is that there are two kinds of people: the one the mother wants her to be and the one Jing-mei (the protagonist and narrator of the story) strives to be. Both mother and daughter in the story have a very complicated relationship. The mother believes that you could become anything you wanted in America. The author emphasizes that Jing-mei’s mother tries to dominateRead MoreTwo Kinds of Interpretations in Amy Tan’s Short Story Two Kinds1285 Words   |  5 PagesOften times mothers can be pushy, annoying, and a bit overbearing but in the long run they always just want what is best for their child. Everyone wants their child to be the best, most popular and overall number one. In Amy Tanâ €™s short story â€Å"Two Kinds† we see this type of fame hungry mother. The short story is about a Chinese family who lost everything. The mother had lost her entire family full of children except for the one in the story. With the belief â€Å"you could be anything you want in America†Read More`` Two Kinds By Amy Tan1460 Words   |  6 Pages  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Two Kinds† by Amy Tan is a story that shows a battle that starts with the narrator and her mother, for control over the narrator’s life. Her mother wanted her to become a prodigy, but she wanted to be anything other than that. So, throughout the short story â€Å"Two Kinds† she’s determined to not quit the fight. â€Å"Two Kinds† is filled with different forms of conflict which allows for the narrator to realize that her mother’s crazy antics were to help her find what she was good at. Which leadsRead MoreThe Two Kinds By Amy Tan1272 Words   |  6 Pagesimmigrants, experience a cultural conflict between that of their parents and that of mainstream U.S. society† (Wikipedia 1). Amy Tan the author of â€Å"Two Kinds†, and the young character in the story both are a second generation immigrants, who have struggled in their life with parents, about the culture they assimilating and their real culture. In the â€Å"Two Kinds† story the author illustrates the struggle between her American cultural identity, and her mother’s Chinese culture, as like the characters inRead MoreTwo Kinds by Amy Tan968 Words   |  4 PagesTwo Kinds The story Two Kinds by Amy Tan represents the theme that parents cannot control their children, but can only guide them. A Chinese mother and daughter Ni Kan are at odds with each other in story. The mother pushes her daughter to become a prodigy of some sort, her daughter does try to follow her mother s orders but has she gets older she realizes she wants to find her own self and not to be what her mother wants her to be. They both have conflicting values, which is the theme of theRead MoreTwo Kinds Point of View637 Words   |  3 PagesThe short story, â€Å"Two Kinds†, written by Amy Tan, is written from the point of view of the character named Jing-Mei. There are three experiences which demonstrate her viewpoint. In the first experience, Jing-Mei is being told by her mom about the â€Å"American dream†. At first, she strives to pursue this prodigy. Her mom would test her every night after dinner. Through Jing-Mei’s eyes, she starts to realize that it was not the life she wanted to live. Lines in the story illustrate this when he says â€Å"IRead MoreTwo Kinds By Amy Tan859 Words   |  4 PagesEssay on â€Å"Two Kinds† Type your essay on â€Å"Two Kinds† below: Title The short story â€Å"Two Kinds,† written by Amy Tan, focuses on the struggles of a young protagonist named Jing-mei trying to find herself without the influences and pressure of others. Aldous Huxley once said, â€Å"One believes things because one has been conditioned to believe them.† This relates to the story in significant ways because when Jing-mei’s mother moved to America in hopes of a better future, Jing-mei is pushed to be the

Leadership Style During Initial Period †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Queston: Discuss about the Leadership Style During Initial Period. Answer: Introduction The success rate of a project is dependent upon the leadership skill shown by themanagement of an organization. More importantly during the period of project launch, it is essential for the team manager to have effective leadership skill that will help to identify the proper requirement of the team depending upon any particular situation. In the given context, the current report into highlight upon the particular style of leadership that is needed within an organization during the time of project launch. The report also aims to highlight upon the tools used for the project manager in order to deal with the challenge during the initial period. Leadership style required during initial period of project launch The success rate of the project is entirely dependent upon the style of leadership that is being provided during the initial period. According to Kerzner (2017), it is essential for an organization to select the kind of leadership depending upon the situation with in the workplace environment that is aimed to improve the level of motivation. The lack of coordination among the team member is one of the basics challenges that are encountered during the initial period. Aga et al., (2016), have mentioned about the importance of transformational leadership that can be applied by an organization in the initial period of project launch. This can help to bring about change within the business environment and motivate the workers to perform according to the mission of the team. It is also essential to mention that during the initial period it is essential to deal with the change the working nature of the workers, which will help them to build strong coordination within the team members. Leadership tool used by the project manager to overcome challenges It is often believe that one of the essential skills to display effective leadership is to have effective communication tool to co-ordinate the work between the team members. This is also believed to be one of the crucial aspects of the transformational leaders, which will aim to bring about motivation and organizational change within the workplace of the team members. Communication tool is also effective in establishing long term official healthy relationship with all the team members that is also believed to provide motivation during the initial period. Workplace environmental safety tool is also an essential part of the leadership skill, which is also essential to improve upon the initial confidence level of the team members. This can motivate the workers to take new challenges and risk that is essential during the initial period of project (Jiang 2014). The additional tool of assessment is also necessary which will be implemented by the team manager to assess the exact strengths and weaknesses of every team members. Powered used by team leader to provide motivation There are five kinds of power that are practiced by the team leaders Reward power: This is one of the essential components that are believed to provide motivation among the team members. With the help of appreciation, it is possible to boost the confidence level of employees. With High level of confidence and motivation, it is possible for every team to improve the chance of project success. Legitimate Power: During the initial period, it is the official duty and responsibility of the project manager to provide a particular team direction for every individual member. This is particularly important due to the fact that it helps the project manager to assign definite task depending upon the potential of individual team members. As every member is able to work according to their potential, it is possible to improve upon the chance of success of the project mission. Expert power: This power is practiced by the team leaders depending upon the level of expertise that is usually gained through past experience. It is important for the team leader to have expertise at the perfect field. That will help them to provide with the perfect team guidance. It will also be possible for the team leader to provide valuable training skills to the team members during the initial period of project launch. Proper knowledge from the part of the team leader is also essential for them to gain respect from junior team members. This is needed in developing long term official relationship with all team members. Referent Power: During the initial phase, it is necessary for the team leader to ensure that they are properly able to gain the trust level of the team members. This will help them to share all type of concern encountered within the workplace. This type of power helps to motivate the employee, as they are able to rely upon the team leaders for all types of issues and challenges within the workplace. As the team member is able to establish strong official Bond with the team leader it improves upon the chance of success of organizational project goal (Aga et al., 2016). Punishment Power: This is the final power that is practiced by the team leader that is aimed to provide penalty for the team members, who are deliberately compromising up on the workplace environment by implementing unethical work practice. Reason for selecting a particular leadership approach As mentioned in the previous section a transformational leadership is one of the effective ways to improve upon the communication and coordination within the team members. During the initial period of project launch there is always an issue due to accepting change that can de-motivate upon the workers. Transformational leadership and use of effective communication tool, it is possible to improve upon the interpersonal skills of every team members. It is also possible to regularly monitor the activities of every team members. This can allow the team manager to properly ensure that the environment of workplace is not compromised due to unethical work practice (Clarke, 2013). Steps taken by project manager to resolve project issues It is highly recommended for the team manager to conduct regular meeting with every team members before the period of project launch. It is also essential for the team manager to encourage the members to come up with the issues and challenges that they are expecting during the project phase. The process of identifying weak team members is also essential during the early period. With the help of proper and special Training, it is possible for them to improve upon the working capability for weak performers (Larson and Gray, 2013). Conclusion In conclusion, it can be said that with the help of transformation of style of leadership it is possible to focus up on all the issues encountered by a team leader during initial period of project launch. The leader needs to use effective communication tool and exercise various power that can help them to motivate and thereby boost up the chance of success among the team members and organizational goal. References Aga, D.A., Noorderhaven, N. Vallejo, B., (2016). Transformational leadership and project success: The mediating role of team-building. International Journal of Project Management, 34(5), pp.806-818. Clarke, S. (2013). Safety leadership: A meta?analytic review of transformational and transactional leadership styles as antecedents of safety behaviours. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 86(1), 22-49. Jiang, J., (2014). The study of the relationship between leadership style and project success. Browser Download This Paper. Kerzner, H., (2017). Project management metrics, KPIs, and dashboards: a guide to measuring and monitoring project performance. John Wiley Sons. Larson, E.W. Gray, C., (2013). Project Management: The Managerial Process with MS Project. McGraw-Hill.

The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Essay Example

The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Paper Human cells are the smallest structures capable of maintaining life and reproducing. They compose all living things, from single-celled plants to multibillion-celled animals. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single newly fertilized cell. Almost all human cells are microscopic in size. To give you an idea of how small a cell is, one average sized adult body, according to one estimate, consists of 100 trillion cells. The brain cells that create brain activity are called neurons. â€Å"The neuron (nerve cell) is the information-processing and information-transmitting element of the nervous system† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). The brain and spinal cord are made up of many cells, including neurons and glial cells. Neurons are cells that send and receive electro-chemical signals to and from the brain and nervous system. There are about 100 billion neurons in the brain. There are many more glial cells; they provide support functions for the neurons, and are far more numerous than neurons. Structure of Brain Cells Each of the neurons has a cell body. â€Å"The soma (cell body) contains the nucleus and much of the machinery that provides for the life processes of the cell and its shape varies considerably in different kinds of neurons† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). However, there are two kinds of fibers: axons and dendrites. Axons are â€Å"the long, thin cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). Dendrites are â€Å"a branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; receives information from the terminal buttons of other neurons† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Each neuron has one axon along The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 4 which it sends electrical impulses to other neurons. Each neuron has a variable number of dendrites which have many branches. The axon from one neuron is attached to the dendrites of other neurons. The point at which they attach is called the synapse. The synapse is the â€Å"junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). Furthermore, dendrites bring information to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body. This is the process of thinking (Cohen, Kessler Gordon, 1988). A Map of the Brain †¢ Corpus callosum – Band of nerves between two hemispheres of the brain. †¢ Thalamus – Switching station for information going into the brain †¢ Basal ganglia – Control movement and cognitive functions †¢ Hypothalamus – Regulates sex hormones, blood pressure and body temperature †¢ Pituitary gland – Produces hormones; influences hormone production in other glands †¢ Amygdala – Regulates heartbeat; orders flight-or-flight reactions †¢ Hippocampus – Critical to long-term memory function †¢ Cerebellum – Coordinates movement How Nerve Signals Travel Carlson, (2007) states nerve signal proceeds in the following manner: 1. An electrical impulse is generated in the body of a neuron (nerve cell). The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 5 2. The impulse travels down the axon to an axon terminal (nerve ending). 3. At the axon terminal the impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitters. 4. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that enable a nerve impulse to jump across the synapse (the gap between nerve cells) at the axon terminal. 5. Once across the synapse, some neurotransmitters trigger the receiver cell; others prevent it from firing. Role of Brain in Mental Illness The belief that the mind plays an important role in physical illness goes back to the earliest days of medicine. From the time of the ancient Greeks to the beginning of the 20th century, it was generally accepted by both physician and patient that the mind can affect the course of illness, and it seemed natural to apply this concept in medical treatments of disease. Chemicals produced by immune cells signal the brain, and the brain in turn sends chemical signals to restrain the immune system. These same chemical signals also affect behavior and the response to stress. Disruption of this communication network in any way, whether inherited or through drugs, toxic substances or surgery exacerbates the diseases that these systems guard against: infectious, inflammatory, autoimmune, and associated mood disorders (Robert Sapolsky, 1998). The brain’s stress response system is activated in threatening situations. The immune system responds automatically to pathogens and foreign molecules. These two response systems are the body’s principle means for maintaining an internal steady state called homeostasis. A substantial proportion of human cellular machinery is dedicated to maintaining it. When The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 6 homeostasis is disturbed or threatened, a repertoire of molecular, cellular and behavioral responses comes into play. These responses attempt to counteract the disturbing forces in order to reestablish a steady state. They can be specific to the foreign invader or a particular stress, or they can be generalized and nonspecific when the threat to homeostasis exceeds a certain threshold. The adaptive responses may themselves turn into stressors capable of producing disease. The immune system’s job is to bar foreign pathogens from the body and to recognize and destroy those that penetrate its shield (Rubin Staddon, 1999). The immune system must also neutralize potentially dangerous toxins; facilitate repair of damaged or worn tissues, and dispose of abnormal cells. Its responses are so powerful that they require constant regulation to ensure that they are neither excessive nor indiscriminate and yet remain effective. When the immune system escapes regulation, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases or immune deficiency syndromes result. The central nervous and immune systems, however, are more similar than different in their modes of receiving, recognizing and integrating various signals and in their structural design for accomplishing these tasks. Both the central nervous system and the immune system possess â€Å"sensory† elements (Rubin Staddon, 1999), which receive information from the environment and other parts of the body; and motor elements, which carry out an appropriate response. Both systems also rely on chemical mediators for communication. Electrical signals along nerve pathways, for instance, are converted to chemical signals at the synapses between neurons. The chemical messengers produced by immune cells communicate not only with other The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 7 parts of the immune system but also with the brain and nerves (Robert Sapolsky, 1998). Chemicals released by nerve cells can act as signals to immune cells. Hormones from the body travel to the brain in the bloodstream, and the brain itself makes hormones. Indeed, the brain is perhaps the most prolific endocrine organ in the body and produces many hormones that act both on the brain and on the tissues throughout the body. A key hormone shared by the central nervous and immune systems is corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH); produced in the hypothalamus and several other brain regions, it unites the stress and immune responses (Science, 2001). The hypothalamus releases CRH into a specialized bloodstream circuit that conveys the hormone to the pituitary gland, which lies just beneath the brain. CRH causes the pituitary to release adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH into the bloodstream, which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, the best-known stress hormone. Cortisol is a steroid hormone that increases the rate and strength of heart contractions, sensitizes blood vessels to the actions of norepinephrine, an adrenaline like hormone, and affects many metabolic functions as well as actions that help the body meet a stressful situation (Gerrig Zimbardo, 2002). In addition, cortisol is a potent immunoregulator and anti-inflammatory agent. It plays a crucial role in preventing the immune system from overreacting to injuries and damaging tissues. Furthermore, cortisol inhibits the release of CRH by the hypothalamus which also keeps this component of stress response under control (Rubin Staddon, 1999). Thus, CRH and cortisol directly link the body’s brain regulated stress response and its immune response. The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 8 CRH-secreting neurons of the hypothalamus send fibers to regions in the brain stem that help to regulate the sympathetic nervous system, as well as to another brain stem area called the locus ceruleus. The sympathetic nervous system, which mobilizes the body during stress, also innervates immune organs, such as the thymus, lymph nodes and spleen, and helps to control inflammatory responses throughout the body. Stimulation of the locus ceruleus leads to behavioral arousal, fear and enhanced vigilance (Rubin Staddon, 1999). Perhaps even more important for the induction of fear related behaviors is the amygdala, where inputs from the sensory regions of the brain are charged as stressful or not. CRH-secreting neurons in the central nucleus of the amygdala send fibers to the hypothalamus, the locus ceruleus, and to other parts of the brain stem. These CRH-secreting neurons are targets of messengers released by immune cells during an immune response (Rubin Staddon, 1999). Cytokines is the more general term for biological molecules that many different kinds of cells use to communicate. Each cytokine is a distinct protein molecule, encoded by a separate gene that targets a particular cell type. A cytokine can either stimulate or inhibit a response depending on the presence of other cytokines or other stimuli and the current state of metabolic activity (Science, 2001). This flexibility allows the immune system to take the most appropriate actions to stabilize the local cellular environment arid to maintain homeostasis. Activation of the brain by cytokines from the peripheral parts of the body induces behaviors of the stress response, such as anxiety and cautious avoidance that keep an individual out of harm’s way until full healing occurs. Anyone who has experienced lethargy and excess The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 9 sleepiness during an illness will recognize this set of responses as â€Å"sickness behavior† (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, 2000). Brain and Depression Although the role of the stress response in inflammatory disease in humans is more difficult to prove, there is growing evidence that a wide variety of such diseases are associated with impairment of the HPA axis and lower levels of CRH secretion, which ultimately results in a hyperactive immune system. Furthermore, patients with a mood disorder called atypical depression also have a blunted stress response and impaired CRH function, which leads to lethargy, fatigue, increased sleep and increased eating that often results in weight gain. A deficiency of CRH could contribute to lethargy in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Injection of CRH into these patients causes a delayed and blunted ACTH secretion by the HPA axis. That same response is also seen in patients whose hypothalamus has been injured or who have a tumor (Dobbs, 2006). Also, fatigue and hyperactivity of the immune response are associated with cortisol deficiency, which occurs when CRH secretion decreases. The hormone levels and responses in patients with fatigue syndromes suggest, but do not prove, that their HPA axis functions are impaired, resulting in a decrease in CRH and cortisol secretion and an increase in immune system activity. Together these findings indicate that human illness characterized by fatigue and hyperim unity could possibly be treated by drugs that mimic CRH actions in the brain (Dobbs, 2006). The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 10 When it comes to the chemistry of the human brain, dopamine and serotonin are the reigning stars. Like other neurotransmitters, they trigger and modulate the electrical signals that nerve cells use to communicate. In comparison, the chemicals called trace amines are considered mere bit players. Now, a study reveals that people have genes that encode cell surface proteins dedicated to responding to trace amines (Kowalski, 1999). Trace amines, so named because they’re present at low concentrations in the human brain, drew considerable interest in the 1960’s. They turned out to be the key neurotransmitters in insect brains, but interest in the chemicals waned when scientists failed to find dedicated receptors in vertebrates. The low concentrations of trace amines and their rapid turnover in the brain also made them difficult to study. Meanwhile, scientists identified receptors for dopamine and serotonin, which led to the development of crucial drugs (Kowalski, 1999). The trace amines, which include tryamine, betaphenylethylamine (beta-PEA), tryptamine, and octopamine, continued to draw some attention. Studies showed that diets rich in these chemicals can elevate a person’s blood pressure and trigger Imipramines in patients taking antidepressants know as MAO inhibitors. The reason for this is that unlike axons, there are no voltage-activated ion channels in the cell membrane of dendrites, so the electrical signal cannot regenerate itself. Instead, it gets smaller and smaller as it travels from the synapse to the cell body (Kowalski, 1999). Brain and Anxiety The classic form of depression, melancholia, is actually not a state of inactivation and suppression of thought and feeling; rather it presents as an organized state of anxiety. The The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 11 anxiety of melancholia is chiefly about the self. Melancholic patients feel impoverished and defective and often express hopelessness about the prospects for their unworthy selves in either love or work. The anxious hyper-arousal of melancholic patients also manifests as a pervasive sense of vulnerability (Carver Scheier, 2000). Many studies have been conducted on patients with major depression to determine whether the excessive level of cortisol associated with depression correlates with suppressed immune responses. Some have found a correlation between hypercortisolism and immunosuppressant; other have not. Because depression can have a variety of mental and biochemical causes, only some depressed patients may be immunosuppressed (Goldstein Dekker, 2001). The excessive secretion of cortisol in melancholic patients is predominantly the result of hyper secretion of CRH, caused by a defect in or above the hypothalamus. Thus, the clinical and biochemical manifestations of melancholia reflect a generalized stress response that has escaped the usual counter regulation, remaining stuck in the on position. The effects of tricyclic antidepressant drugs on components of the stress response support the concept that melancholia is associated with a chronic stress response. In rats, regular, but not acute, administration of the tricyclic antidepressant Imipramine significantly lowers the levels of CRH precursors in the hypothalamus (Jeanette, Webster Esther, 2002). Imipramine given for two months to healthy people with normal cortisol levels causes a gradual and sustained decrease in CRH secretion and other HPA axis functions, indicating that down regulation of important The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 12 components of the stress response is an intrinsic effect of Imipramine (Goldstein Dekker, 2001). Brain and Stress Stress not only is personal but is perceived through the prism of social interactions. These interactions can either add to or lessen psychological stress and affect our hormonal responses to it, which in turn can alter immune responses. For instance, in humans, loneliness is associated with a â€Å"threat,† or adrenaline-like pattern of activation of the stress response and high blood pressure, whereas exercising is associated with a â€Å"challenge† pattern of high blood flow and cardiac output (Sternberg, 2001). Studies have shown that people exposed to chronic social stresses for more than two months have increased susceptibility to the common cold. The popular belief that stress exacerbates inflammatory illness and that relaxation or removal of stress ameliorates it may indeed have a basis in fact. The interactions of the stress and immune systems and the hormonal responses they have in common could explain how conscious attempts to tone down responsively to stress could affect immune responses. How much of the response to stress is genetically determined and how much can be consciously controlled is not known. The set point of the stress response is to some extent genetically determined (Sternberg, 2001). In addition, factors in early development, learning, and later experiences contribute to differences in stress responsiveness. An event that is physiologically highly stressful to one individual may be much less or so to another, depending on the sum of each person’s genetic tendency to hormonal reactivity and their previous The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 13 experience. In my opinion, the degree to which stress could precipitate or exacerbate disease would then depend not only on the intensity and duration of the stressful stimulus but also on the person’s ability and learned perception of the event as stressful and on the set point of the stress system. Psychological stress can affect an individual’s susceptibility to infectious diseases. The regulation of the immune system by the neuro-hormonal stress system provides a biological basis for understanding how stress might affect these diseases. Thus stress hormones released from the brain, cortisol from the adrenal glands, and nerve chemicals, such as norepinephrine and epinephrine released from nerve endings, all modify the ability of immune cells to fight infectious agents and foreign molecules (Mayer Saper, 2000). There is evidence that stress does affect human immune responses to viruses and bacteria. In studies with volunteers given a standard dose of the common cold virus rhinovirus, individuals who are simultaneously exposed to stress show more viral particles and produce more mucus than do not stressed individuals (Jeanette, Webster Esther, 2002). Stress and the Role of Social Support in Bereavement; A Theoretical Analysis According to cognitive stress theories, critical life events such as bereavement are stressful because they require major readjustments. The intensity of stress created by a life event depends on the extent to which the perceived demands of the situation tax or exceed an individual’s coping resources, given that failure to cope leads to important negative consequences. Stress theory provides the theoretical underpinning for the â€Å"buffering model,† The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 14 which suggests that high levels of social support protect the individual against the deleterious impact of stress on health (Lazarus Folkman, 1984). According to Cohen and Willis (1985), there are two ways in which social support can buffer the individual against the negative impact of the stress experience. First, support can intervene between the stressful event and a stress reaction by attenuating or preventing a stress appraisal response. Second, adequate support may intervene between the experience of stress and the onset of the pathological response by eliminating the stress reaction or by directly influencing physiological processes. Whereas these two pathways reduce the individual’s vulnerability to the impact of the stressful event, however a third way in which social support may affect individual stress response, namely, by aiding in recovery. Thus, social support may also help individuals to recover more readily from the impact of the stressful life event. The Deficit Model of Partner Loss was developed as an application to cognitive stress theory to bereavement. On the basis of the interactional definition of stress, the deficit model offers an analysis of the situational demands characteristic of widowhood and of the coping resources needed to deal with these demands. Marital bereavement marks the end of a close mutual relationship, and the loss of a partner is likely to result in a number of deficits in areas in which the spouse had previously been able to rely on the partner. The Deficit Model suggests that the loss of a partner leads to deficits in areas that can broadly be characterized as loss of instrumental support, loss of validational support, loss of emotional support, and the loss of social contact support. The Deficit Model postulates that social support alleviates the stress of The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 15 bereavement, but only to the extent to which it helps to replace the deficits created by the loss of a partner (W. Stroebe M. Stroee, 1987; K. Gergen, M. Gergen, 1980, 1982). It follows from the Deficit Model that bereaved individuals are in greater need of social support than married individuals. The model therefore predicts an interaction of social support and marital status on the level of psychological symptoms, such as the buffering effect. However, because it is unlikely that family and friends are able to alleviate completely the deficits caused by the loss of the partner, one would also expect a main effect of marital status on symptomatology. In contrast, attachment theory rejects the notion that supportive friends can compensate for the loss of an attachment figure (Bowlby, 1969; Weiss, 1975). Bowlby (1969) proposed that the attachment figure, unlike other people in the social environment, was uniquely able to foster general feelings of security and that other people could not simply take over this function. He thus goes beyond optimal matching by not only requiring a match between the characteristics of stressful events confronting the individual and the form of social support that is beneficial in this context, but by stating categorically that this type of social support can only be provided by one specific type of person (Cutrona Russell, 1990). Weiss (1975) elaborated these ideas in his relational theory of loneliness, in which he drew a fundamental distinction between emotional and social loneliness and argued that the two types of loneliness cannot compensate for each other: The loneliness of emotional isolation appears in the absence of a close emotional attachment or the reintegration of the one that had been lost. Those experiencing this form of loneliness are apt to experience a sense of utter The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 16 aloneness, whether or not the companionship of others is in fact accessible (Weiss, 1975). Thus, according to attachment theory, social support from relatives and friends cannot compensate for the major deficit caused by bereavement, namely, the loss of an attachment figure. However, social support should help with a second type of loneliness, namely, the loneliness of social isolation. Social loneliness is associated with the absence of an engaging social network, and this absence can only be remedied by access to such a network. The dominant feeling of this type of loneliness is boredom, together with feelings of marginality (Weiss, 1975). Attachment theory thus suggests that marital status and social support influence well being by distinctly different pathways, with the impact of marital status being mediated by emotional loneliness and the impact of social support by social loneliness. According to this Dual-Path Model, one would predict main effects of marital status and social support on measures of symptomatology, but no interaction. Because each of these main effects is assumed to be mediated by a different type of loneliness, one would further expect marital status to affect emotional but not social loneliness and social support to affect social but not emotional loneliness. Finally, one would expect that control for emotional loneliness should reduce or eliminate the impact of marital status on symptomatology, whereas control for social loneliness should reduce or eliminate the effect of social support on symptom levels. The two major theories of bereavement outcome thus make different and partly contradictory predictions about the role of social support in adjustment to loss. Consistent with popular beliefs about the helpfulness of social support to the bereaved, cognitive stress theory predicts a social support times a marital status interaction on symptomatology constitutes the The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 17 buffering effect, in addition to a main effect of marital status. In contrast, attachment theory predicts main effects of both marital status and social support on levels of symptoms, but no interaction. It further suggests that these two main effects on symptomatology are mediated by different types of loneliness. These predictions have not yet been addressed by empirical research. Stress and the Role of Social Support in Adjustment to Loss; A Review of the Evidence Guided by stress theory, research on the role of social support in adjustment to loss has focused exclusively on testing the buffering against the main effect model. As Cohen and Wills (1985) argued in their influential review of the literature on the social support, such tests require a factorial design that includes at least two levels of stress and two levels of social support. Furthermore, to test whether social support buffers individuals against the negative impact of the loss of a marital partner, one has to compare the impact of social support in bereaved and married samples. Buffering effects would be reflected by a statistical interaction of social support with marital status on health. In the earlier review of literature on social support and bereavement up to 1986 (W. Stroebe M. Stroebe, 1987), there were no studies found that satisfied these criteria. In the meantime, a few studies using adequate designs, comparing the impact of levels of social support in bereaved samples to that of married controls, have been published. The results are not unanimous in favor of buffering. Although some do indeed report evidence of buffering (Krause, 1986; Norris Murrell, 1990; Schwarzer, 1992), albeit using measures of social integration or received social support, other do not (Greene Feld, 1989; Murphy, 1988). The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 18 Krause (1986) studied the impact of life stresses and social support on depressive symptoms in a random sample of 351 individuals older than 65 living in Galveston, Texas. Social support was assessed with a modified version of the Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors (ISSB: Barrera, Sandler, Ramsay, 1981). Depressive symptomatology was assessed with the Center for Epidemiology Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Whereas no buffering effects occurred for the overall indicator of stressful life events, buffering was found for the numerically undefined subgroup of individuals who had been bereaved within the previous year. These buffering effects modified weak bereavement main effects. As part of a larger study of individuals aged 55 and older, Norris and Murrell (1990) obtained interviews of three samples of older adults: 45 persons who had recently lost a spouse, 40 who had lost a parent or child, and 45 who were not bereaved. Depression was assessed with the CES-D. Social support was measured with the Louisville Social Support Scale which consists of two subscales reflecting social integration, or embeddedness in a social network, and expected help. â€Å"Expected help taps the respondents more specific expectations of help in an emergency from family, friends, and community† (Norris Murrell, 1987 p. 431) and appears to reflect aspects of perceived social support. However, expected help had no impact on depression, an ameliorative effect of social embeddedness on depression was reported. The more individuals were embedded in their social networks, the less they were depressed nine months after their loss. This association between social embeddedness and depression was The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 19 stronger for the widowed sample than for a combined control group consisting of individuals who were either not bereaved or had lost a parent or child. Schwarzer (1992) studied a sample of 248 individuals about the age of 60, of which 152 had lost a family member or a friend within the previous year. Social support was defined in terms of visits by children and family members. The criterion measure in this study was anxiety, assessed with a German version of the State-Trait Personality Inventory (Schwarzer Schwarzer, 1983). When the sample was dichotomized into those who were visited at least every other week and those who received fewer visits, a clear buffering effect was observed, with loss having no impact on anxiety for individuals who received many visits but a strong impact on those who received few visits. One puzzling feature of these studies is that buffering effects were observed for measures of social support that typically do not yield buffering effects. According to Cohen and Wills (1985), buffering effects ought only to be found with measures of perceived social support but not with network measures or scales assessing received social support. In contrast, the above studies report buffering effects with measures of social network (Krause, 1986) or received social support (Norris Murrell, 1990; Schwarzer, 1992). The one study that assessed both social embeddedness and perceived social support did not find any effects for perceived social support (Norris Murrell, 1990). It is plausible that this discrepancy has something to do with the fact that the study included only elderly individuals, a subgroup for whom the needs, provisions, consequences, and perceptions of social support are very different from those of younger groups. The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 20 Two studies, both using samples of more long term bereaved, did not find buffering effects. In a follow up assessment of 49 family members and close friends of 51 adult disaster victims of the Mount Saint Helens volcano eruption conducted 3 years after the disaster, in which their mental distress was compared with that of a non-bereaved control group, there was no evidence or main or buffering effects (Murphy, 1988). Social support was measured with an index developed by scientists that assesses social embeddedness, as well as perceived social support (Coppel, 1980). Greene and Feld (1989) examined the relationship between social support and well-being in groups of 151 married women and 60 widowed women who had lost their partner within the previous five years. Respondents were drawn from a national sample of women aged 50 and older. Social support was assessed in terms of the number of social support function for which respondents mentioned one or more social supporters. Well-being was measured w

Free Essays on Explication-“Shall I Compare Thee To A Summers Day“

Poems can touch a person’s heart like nothing else can even come close to. They can make you cry, make you laugh, love, make you forgive, they can bring an abundance of emotions in just a few lines. The most captivating of all poems are love poems, especially when they are telling you of how beautiful you are. In William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer’s Day† he does that very thing. Shakespeare is comparing the love of his life, this beautiful being, to a perfect and timeless season, and he does so in just fourteen lines. So hopefully in the next few paragraphs I can further explain his descriptions. Poetry does not have to be about grand subjects but can be about anything genuine, from the baseball fan to the hanging bat. Poetry is as universal as language and almost as ancient. The most primitive peoples have used it and the most civilized have cultivated it. It can be defined as a kind of language that says more and says it more intensely. Poems have been around since the beginning of time, just as language, just as life. In the bible, the disciples wrote poems of love, thankfulness, joy, sorrow, and every emotion to God through scripture. Not only did they write poems to God but also to one another. Song of Solomon is one of many books of the bible, but it deals solely with a woman and man proclaiming their love for each other through poetry. Poems also come in many forms, the obvious love poem, poems of despair, envy, thankfulness, paranoia, and any emotion known to man. When all of these emotions are wrapped up in sentence be it together or apart it is defiantly a beautifu l thing. Shakespeare begins the poem with a question that proposes a comparison between his beloved and a summer season. Summer is chosen because it is the loveliest and the most pleasant season. In the second line the comparison starts to favor his beloved: his beloved is more beautiful and less extreme than summer. The reason fo... Free Essays on Explication-â€Å"Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer's Dayâ€Å" Free Essays on Explication-â€Å"Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer's Dayâ€Å" Poems can touch a person’s heart like nothing else can even come close to. They can make you cry, make you laugh, love, make you forgive, they can bring an abundance of emotions in just a few lines. The most captivating of all poems are love poems, especially when they are telling you of how beautiful you are. In William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer’s Day† he does that very thing. Shakespeare is comparing the love of his life, this beautiful being, to a perfect and timeless season, and he does so in just fourteen lines. So hopefully in the next few paragraphs I can further explain his descriptions. Poetry does not have to be about grand subjects but can be about anything genuine, from the baseball fan to the hanging bat. Poetry is as universal as language and almost as ancient. The most primitive peoples have used it and the most civilized have cultivated it. It can be defined as a kind of language that says more and says it more intensely. Poems have been around since the beginning of time, just as language, just as life. In the bible, the disciples wrote poems of love, thankfulness, joy, sorrow, and every emotion to God through scripture. Not only did they write poems to God but also to one another. Song of Solomon is one of many books of the bible, but it deals solely with a woman and man proclaiming their love for each other through poetry. Poems also come in many forms, the obvious love poem, poems of despair, envy, thankfulness, paranoia, and any emotion known to man. When all of these emotions are wrapped up in sentence be it together or apart it is defiantly a beautifu l thing. Shakespeare begins the poem with a question that proposes a comparison between his beloved and a summer season. Summer is chosen because it is the loveliest and the most pleasant season. In the second line the comparison starts to favor his beloved: his beloved is more beautiful and less extreme than summer. The reason fo...

How to Organize a Dorm Room

How to Organize a Dorm Room Given how ridiculously tiny the room might be, knowing how to organize a dorm room can be a challenge. So just what can you do to make the most of what space you do have? Dont have anything in the room that serves only one function. Sure, that plug-in grilled cheese maker seems cool, but it takes up a lot of space and can only do one thing. Make sure that every item in your room serves more than one function. For example, pick a speaker system for your iPhone that charges it at the same time. Use a throw on your bed that you can also take to football games when it gets cold outside. Youre paying a lot for that little room make sure your stuff is earning its keep, too! Think about the actual number of things youll really need at any time. Do you really need 20 highlighters? Or will 5 do? Let your campus bookstore be the one to keep things in stock; you can always run down there and get more of any supply (or borrow some from your roommate or friends down the hall). Split things with your roommate. Do you really need two printers? Two mini-fridges? Two MLA manuals? Of course, if sharing makes things get sticky, avoid this rule ... but, most likely, yo u and your roommate can make things work out by sharing some of the most important stuff. And you can save some sacred space (and cash) in the meantime. Avoid empty space. You probably have a duffel bag or suitcase for your trips home (or elsewhere). When you store them in your closet, dont store them empty. Put out-of-season clothes, big jackets, blankets, and anything else that will fit inside of them. Is there room under your bed? Buy storage boxes and cram in as much as you can. Youll still have your stuff accessible but no longer in the way. Aim for keeping things organized as often as you can. You may hear echoes of your mother in this rule, but its true: in a space that is especially small, keeping things organized will make the space seem larger. If youre pulling an all-nighter, getting everything off your desk except the stuff you need will help as your ability to focus starts to fade. If you like to read and study on your bed, being able to do so without having to fight for space with your laundry will make it easier on both your body and your brain.

Property Asset Management ( A professional Report) Essay

Property Asset Management ( A professional Report) - Essay Example The team has to have at least three (3) more members who suitably qualified and experienced aside from the Property Assessment Manager to enable the smooth and professional execution of the project's principal task of finding a viable headquarters for the firm. One is the Senior Property Appraiser who will be tasked to perform difficult technical valuation work in the classification and appraisal of real property for value assessment purposes and to assist in the training of subordinate appraisers in the theory and techniques of real property appraisals. The SPA's duties may include but are not limited to: leads assessment projects, including assisting with planning and coordination of projects; annually performs preliminary and final review on a large volume of complex valuation changes such as farm and forest property segregations and mergers; This person must have a working knowledge of -- Property tax system and adjustments necessary to compute assessed values resulting from corrections or adjustments to real market value; principles, practices and methods of real property appraisal; technical appraisal practices and procedures used in residential, commercial, farm, forest, manufactured housing and land appraisal, pertinent structural, economic, and environmental factors affecting property value; special assessment programs including farm, forest, wildlife habitat, historical, commercial facilities under construction, riparian and open space; construction techniques, blueprints, maps, property descriptions, quality of building materials, equipment, workmanship, and general construction quality and quantity as applied to

Salvador Dali's History Backriound Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Salvador Dali's History Backriound - Essay Example The essay "Salvador Dali's History Backriound" aims to analyze Salvador Dali's background. Salvador Dali is a Spanish painter. His parents had a strong influence on his development and artistic practices as his father’s strict disciplinarian approach contributed to Dali’s structured pursuit of art, while his mother’s creative nature influenced his artistic process. In 1926 he would leave Spain and move to Paris, where he came into contact with Pablo Picasso. While Dali had experimented with Cubist methods during this time in Madrid, it was clear that he did not fully understand the genre. During the next few years Dali would produce work heavily influenced by Picasso and fellow surrealist Joan Miro. Dali would then go on to combine a broad variety of influences into his work. Among these influences included academia, classical and modernist techniques, as well as recent psychological explorations by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Through World War II and his later life Dali would increasingly focus on his unique approach to surrealist art. When examining Dali’s art it’s clear that there are a number of notable elements related to subject matter, content, meaning, and iconography. One notes that in examining Dali’s art within this context of understanding that his work has shifted during different periods of the artist’s life. Still, throughout these periods Dali implemented characteristic forms of oil on canvas in constructing his works. He became primarily interested in exploring abstract notions.

Internal Control Essay Example for Free

Internal Control Essay The LBJ Company is currently making a decision to go public or not and with that The LBJ Company will also need to become knowledgeable about their internal controls within their systems, specifically in regards to Accounting and also Human Resources and how it will affect them and their employees and of course how they conduct business. There have been some positive and negative issues arise in regards to their internal controls. However, the LBJ Company needs to be acknowledged for what they are doing right, but will also need to address the issues that are negatively affecting them and their business and will continue to negatively affect them if they decide to go public, which will drive down the cost of their shares etc. This case study will review these items as well as make recommendations for what the LBJ Company can do to tighten up their internal controls. Part 1: Internal Controls Requirements Inform the President of any new internal control requirements if the company decides to go public. Internal controls are mechanisms, policies, and procedures used to minimize and monitor operational risks. In order to deter employees from committing a dishonest or fraudulent act the controls must be thorough and comprehensive. However, internal controls by themselves are not enough. They will be effective only if they are reinforced through culture, policies and procedures, information systems, training, and supervision of staff. * The primary objectives of internal controls are to: Internal controls help to provide reliable data by ensuring that information is recorded in a consistent way that will allow for useful financial reports * They also help prevent fraud and loss by safeguarding assets and essential records. * Internal controls promote operational efficiency by reducing unnecessary duplication of effort and guarding against misallocation of resources. * They encourage adherence to management policies and funding source requirements. Internal controls can be broke down into two categories- accounting and administrative controls, which is exactly what the issues are with the LBJ Company. (Internal Controls Checklist) According to the Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002, all publicly traded U.S. corporations are required to maintain an adequate system of internal control at all times. As LJB Company President, he or she should be aware that a controlled environment must be present at all times, and â€Å"that unethical activity will not be tolerated.† The LBJ Company must identify and analyze the various factors that could create risk for the business and how the team can manage those risks. The overall internal control system needs to show and communicate all appropriate information within the organization, to ensure that the communicated information has reached the organization. According to the textbook, â€Å"It is very important to have testing and auditing of controls to build a long lasting organization. (Kimmel, 2009) Part 2: What the Company is Doing Right? Advise the President of what the company is doing right (they are doing some things well) and also recommend to the President whether or not they should buy the indelible ink machine. When you advise the President, please be sure to reference the applicable internal control principle that applies. The company has been doing well by creating a balanced environment for employees, due to the long-term employees that are currently there is an excellent thing for LBJ Company. From what is being shown, the managers and employees have a great balance, which keeps good control and promotes a team oriented environment within the company. Another good thing is that the accountant is in charge of the checks and also stores them into safe in his office, but the manager should have the only key to the safe to increase the monitoring of the checks and would also create a checks and balance system. Plus if the accountant is not there for whatever reason and an employee needs their check, the manager can handle that and not violate any employment laws by not giving an employee their check in a timely manner. The President of LJB Company, has also done a good thing for wanting the employees to be aware of any new regulations required of the company if they decide to go public. It is incredibly important the President have different individuals serve as an Accountant, Treasurer and Controller which will help streamline many of their processes. This way, the Accountant will not be responsible for all financial dealings and again this will create checks and balances which are required to go public. Part 3: Advise the President of what the company is doing wrong (they are definitely doing some things poorly). Please be sure to include the internal control principle that is being violated along with a recommendation for improvement. (20 points) This situation for LBJ Company has shown that it is in clear violation of the internal control principle and is running significant risks by not including more oversight and checks and balances. First of all, that they have one accountant who plays the role of both Treasurer and Controller is an area of great risk. The Controller and Treasurer are meant to play opposite roles in which they provide oversight and checks and balances to the other. The two positions should be filled by separate employees, and this change should be implemented as soon as possible. In the current setup, the one accountant has too much power over the processes. Another issue is the cash drawer principle also leaves the company vulnerable to fraud and manipulation of funds. For example, even if a company employee were to act independently, an employee could easily remove a substantial amount of unauthorized funds, and it would be difficult, if not impossible, to find who did it as any of the company employees could have been culpable. An example of the problems that arise from the anonymity that company employees have within the organization, is clearly exemplified in the case of the worker who was fired for viewing pornography on the company computer. Not only does this introduce risks of damaging corporate reputation, and download viruses, but it also highlights how the lack of individual user accounts and accountability makes it so that one employee can hide their malicious actions with anonymity. Below are some recommendations for the LBJ Company. Recommendat ions: 1) To introduce a culture of corporate responsibility, the CEO should begin to implement individual user accounts for its computers, as well as a formal cash withdrawal system, that requires that company employees register themselves with another person or a computer system. 2) The role of the one accountant who acts as Treasurer and Controller must be separated into two so as not to violate the internal control principle, and in order to minimize the likelihood of fraud. 3) The checks should not just be left at the accountants office, but in a safe where only two people have access such as the accountant and the manager. That way more than one person is responsible. 4) The accountant taking checks home over the weekend is a security issue as well as introduces more opportunity for fraud. This practice must be stopped and more safeguards put in place. This also is an issue regarding personal identifying information on the checks of the employees and if the checks become lost or stolen, then that information is available to the public now. 5) The accountant also being involved in the interview process for new employees is disturbing because of the level of control he has over critical aspects in the companys day to day business. If he were to hire an accomplice, he could easily use that individual and his position in order to manipulate accounts and withdraw significant funds from the company before he is ever caught. 6) The HR Departments should also run more thorough background checks as part of their hiring processes. (Bell, 2010) Conclusion Now that the LBJ Company has received the recommendations to fix the issues with their internal controls, they will no doubt be able to go public and be successful. The LBJ Company should also re-evaluate their processes every so often to make sure that these new systems for their internal controls are successful. They should re-evaluate every so often in case they need to make changes as well.

People and Events of World War II :: essays research papers

People and Events of World War II The Axis Powers World War II was started by the Axis Forces, which were comprised of Germany, Italy, and Japan. They fought against the combined might of almost the entire world, and, but for a supreme combined effort on the part of America, the USSR, and Britain, almost won. During the war, the Axis Powers were totalitarian states, controlled by their respective leader or leaders. These are their stories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During World War II, there were three men who were controlling the Japanese government, none of which liked each other. The first, Emperor Hirohito, born in 1901, was ruler from 1926 to 1989, the last divine imperial leader of Japan. During the first nineteen years of his reign he gave over power of the government to a militant party. The result of this was the war with China from 1937 to 1945 and adherence to the Axis Powers. At the end of the war Hirohito wanted peace and, in 1945, he unconditionally surrendered to the Allies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second, Isoroku Yamamoto, born in 1884, was the reluctant Commander- in-Chief of Japan's naval forces during WW II. He had a clear grasp of the situation and predicted that against a country like the U.S. or Britain, Japan would quickly lose the war. He died in 1943, shot down by the U.S. 13th Air Force in a surgical assassination strike.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last, Tojo Hideki, was born in 1884, and was the most violent of the three. He was the leader of the militaristic party that controlled the government from 1926 to 1945, and the one who commanded the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1937. He controlled all government and military campaigns until 1944, when, as a result of bad military defeats, he resigned as Prime Minister. Tojo was later arrested, tried, and convicted by an international military court for conventional war crimes, crimes against peace, and crimes against humanity. He was later executed in 1948.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These three men had control over the Japanese government, and allied themselves to Germany and Italy, thus forming the Axis forces. So, as the Pacific was being dominated by the Japanese, Europe and North Africa were being equally terrorized by Germany and Italy, who were under the iron fists of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, respectively.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Adolf Hitler was born in 1889, the son of a very low-ranking official, and a peasant. He wasn't very well educated, never completed high school, and was also rejected from institutes of higher learning because of his lack of talent. Although he was a poor student, he read non-stop, and it was from books

High School Practice for College Essay

High school life has been so much fun. I got very much involved with sports, particularly baseball, basketball and lacrosse. I played well and that made me somehow popular. I am a kind person and loyal to friends. I made many friends through the years and we spent many good times together, off-roading, going floating down Chattaoochee River or just hanging out. And when not in sports, I would spend time working at Brookfield country club on a driving range. I was so engrossed with so many enjoyable activities that I hardly noticed high school was almost ending. Eventually, my teachers reminded me that I had to start planning my life and determine what I really wanted to do after high school. The planning aspect was not that difficult because I had always known what I wanted after high school. Like many of us in our batch, I have always dreamed of having a college education. I felt like college education was what I had to do especially if I wanted to have a successful career. I wanted to take an associate degree in a university in Charleston that would prepare me to become a Wildlife and Game Warden. I would be so much thankful if I end up a warden for the state of Georgia. Though I knew what I wanted, I have not taken time to evaluate my capabilities and my readiness. Then I questioned myself whether I have what it takes to be in college. More questions kept popping in my head, like, am I prepared to be there or if ever I did get there, would I ever survive the challenges that laid ahead. I organized my mind and thought about my plus factors, those that would give me an advantage when I am there. Confidently, I could say, I would be able to blend with my friends and future classmates. This is because I have always been very sociable. Even if I have not had chances of leading groups or organizations, I have been a good follower and a good team player. Another factor that I realized would lead and get me through college is my passion for fishing. Fishing, they say, builds character and I firmly believe that. It is full of excitement, like life, the next trip, the next big one or the new reel. One cannot enjoy fishing when one does not have patience. My father taught me that. He and I had the same passion for fishing. This year, I caught a 2-pound bass and my father had it stuffed so we will remember our fishing memories. Someday I will be a professional fisherman or with luck, I may even have my own fishing show. That would complete me. Fishing has influenced a lot about me; my love for the country and the wildlife. The peace and serenity of nature gives me a sense of fulfillment. Something that perhaps complements with problems and difficulties with my family life. My parents were divorced when I was just three years old. My father lives in another state with his new wife and two other sons. I live with my mother, she also remarried and she has two step daughters. I did not have the luxury to remember having both parents together, even in special occasions. I had gifts, money and good times with friends, but holidays were always problems because I would not know with whom to spend it. I used to hide my tears many times when I see kids going shopping or dining with their parents. I felt, they were lucky. I know my mother and father were good people, and they would have stayed together if they could. They must have done it because it was the right thing to do. And I respect that. Childhood was tough for me, many times my dad missed my games; he did not even get to participate or coach my sports. We could not go fishing as much as I would have liked. I was always around people, but many of them, I did not know. I guess I was lonely and starving for a complete family. But I realized, no matter what, I had so much to be thankful for. All my families were all doing fine and in good health; I had chances of being with them, although separately, we did not have problems with finances and I was going to college. I am proud to have surpassed many of life’s trials even at an early age. The experience gave me strength and maturity to deal with the future. The blend of my personality, my skills, my love for nature and my experiences gave me my character. I know my character will lead me to success.

The Prohibition Era and the Creation of NASCAR

NASCAR is the world famous acronym for â€Å"National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing.†NASCAR racing stands prominently in the front line of the American sports today. NASCAR is an authorizing body which arranges several types of racing all over the country the country. The most famous ones are Craftsman Truck Series, Sprint Cup Series and Nationwide Series.[1]AN OVERVIEWThe creation of NASCAR traces back its roots in history. The creation of NASCAR traces back to its roots deep in the history. It goes back to1794 almost a century before the first automobile came into being. It was the time of â€Å"Whiskey Rebellion†. This rebellion was actually a protest by frontier farmers against a federal tax levied on whiskey. Despite paying the tax they built secret stills, prepared and started supplying their product secretly.[2] There began the origin of NASCAR. In this paper this history is presented decade wise.Decade 1(1920-1933)On 16th January 1920 the â€Å"Volstead Act† was imposed all over United States. The manufacture, sale, export and import of alcohol were banned under this act.[3]In the Prohibition period of the 1920's and early 30's, the underground marketing of whiskey, or â€Å"moonshine running† began to rise. Moonshine is a primitive term in English for illegal transportation of liquor, and gradually gave birth to moonshine/ moonshine runners or rum runners. These moonshiners were commonly known as â€Å"Bootleggers†. These people who confidentially used to supply whiskey from their underground stills illegally to hundreds of markets all over the Southeast. Their t high speeds driving at night because of the risk of police encounter was quite dangerous. It gradually turned into race competitions between the bootleggers which usually resulted in lose of life or imprisonment.When bootlegging developed, the bootleggers started to race among themselves to check the speed of their cars. They used to have these races on Sunday afternoons and then the same car was used to smuggle moonshine at Sunday night. Unavoidably, these races and moonshine cars became extremely popular in general public. It even continued after the end of the prohibition era in 1933 on repeal of the Volstead Act.[4]Decade 2 (1938-1950):In 1938 William H.G. Bill France held a race on Daytona Beach, Florida and NASCAR came into being. With the beginning of World War II brought stock car racing came to an end but it again grew after the war but there were no appropriate rules and the proper organization. Soon Bill realized the importance of growth of stock car racing and consequently to start a formal official organization the National Association for Stock Car Auto  Racing (NASCAR) in 1947.In the supervision of Bill France Senior and afterwards his  son, Bill France  Junior NASCAR has turned into a rapidly growing  sport in the  1990s.The first race sanctioned by NASCAR held on the  beach course at  Daytona in Fe bruary 1948. The next year NASCAR  began the racing division of NASCAR called â€Å"Strictly  Stock† division,  now identified as the Winston Cup Series. The first race by â€Å"Strictly Stock† contributed a $5,000  purse and held  in southern Florida on a two-mile circular course followed by150-mile race at the three-quarter-mile Charlotte  Speedway. The first NASCAR race on newly made Darlington  International Speedway was held in 1959 in South Carolina.[5]The NASCAR is flourishing since then till todayCurrent DecadeAs compared to the last decade NAS CAR racing has achieved the fore front of spectator sports in America, both live and in television telecasts. â€Å"The Fiftieth Season† of NASCAR was celebrated I 1998 which received great public attendance and an immense coverage by the media which clearly shows the great development and popularity of NASCAR not only in United States but across the world s well.[6]ConclusionAfter going through the history of creation and growth of NASCAR, the link between the prohibition era in the United States and the creation of NASCAR has been vividly depicted. The role played by the bootleggers/ rumrunners/moonshiners is inevitable in the origin of NASCAR. Certain schools of thoughts in United States still assume them as heroes who fought against injustice and undue taxation no matter they were treated as criminals or smugglers. They believe that America was built by them.[7]Neal Thompson has written a book â€Å"Driving with the Devils† about the moonshiners. Charles Danoff reviews the book and says that people may find â€Å"Driving with the Devil†over sympathizing the southern bootleggers regardless the fact that they were criminals anyhow. But without this deep sympathy the story could never be told. The author treats Bill France as a dictator.Danoff is of the opinion that France family may tell this story in any manner they want, but its an undeniable fact that NASCAR did not came into being in 1940s as its website says. Its origin was conceived sometimes two decade earlier.[8]ReferencesRumrunners,Moonshiners,Bootleggers  Accessed March 10, 2008The Chicago Bootleggers: The Hollow Men of NASCAR from  Ã‚     Ã‚  http://www.chicagosportsreview.com/inthemeantime/contentview.asp?c=201755 Accessed March 10, 2008  The History of NASCAR  Accessed March 10, 2008What is NASCAR.About.com: Car Racinghttp://nascar.about.com/ Accessed March 10, 2008Ziewacz Lawrence E.The Country Music- NASCAR Connection. Country Music 2001, Charles K.Wolfe and James E. Akenson[1] What is NASCAR? About.com [2]The History of NASCAR [3] Rumrunners and Prohibition [4] The History of NASCAR [5] The History of NASCAR [6] The Country Music-NASCAR Connection [7] Rumrunners,Moonshiners,Bootleggers( http://www.history.com/index.jsp) [8] The Chicago Sports Review: Bootleggers: The Hollow Men of NASCAR

Free Essays on Leadership V. Followership

Possessing skills or knowledge in the area of leadership can benefit people in the future. Effective leaders must understand from where their authority comes. Official authority comes from regulations and manuals or is designated by rank. But authority over people results from one thing- the willingness of those placed in the leader's charge to follow. Ira Chaleff, author of the article "Learn the Art of Followership," puts it this way, "The relationship between leaders and followers all the way up and down the organization chart makes programs, breaks programs, and makes or breaks careers. Members must smoothly shift between the leader and the follower roles." The willingness of subordinates to follow erodes when a leader undermines those in authority. This undermining can come in several forms: arguing publicly with a supervisor, not carrying out responsibilities, and complaining or making biting comments about supervisors to subordinates. When a leader behaves poorly as a follower, how can subordinates be expected to do better? Followership hinges on integrity- it must be present in leaders and followers alike. No one can expect people to support decisions if there is one hint of compromise or lack of integrity. Organizations should understand the dynamics of leader-follower relationships and work towards developing both roles in their people. Chaleff believes that superior followership requires loyal and energetic support of the leader’s agenda and a willingness to challenge the leader’s policies or behaviors if they are harmful to the common purpose. Followership takes courage- sometimes more courage than leadership. Followers should be aware that leaders have earned their place because of their experience and knowledge. They should respect the role the leader has earned. There are times when a follower may disagree with a decision being made and will express concern. But once the decision has been made, ... Free Essays on Leadership V. Followership Free Essays on Leadership V. Followership Possessing skills or knowledge in the area of leadership can benefit people in the future. Effective leaders must understand from where their authority comes. Official authority comes from regulations and manuals or is designated by rank. But authority over people results from one thing- the willingness of those placed in the leader's charge to follow. Ira Chaleff, author of the article "Learn the Art of Followership," puts it this way, "The relationship between leaders and followers all the way up and down the organization chart makes programs, breaks programs, and makes or breaks careers. Members must smoothly shift between the leader and the follower roles." The willingness of subordinates to follow erodes when a leader undermines those in authority. This undermining can come in several forms: arguing publicly with a supervisor, not carrying out responsibilities, and complaining or making biting comments about supervisors to subordinates. When a leader behaves poorly as a follower, how can subordinates be expected to do better? Followership hinges on integrity- it must be present in leaders and followers alike. No one can expect people to support decisions if there is one hint of compromise or lack of integrity. Organizations should understand the dynamics of leader-follower relationships and work towards developing both roles in their people. Chaleff believes that superior followership requires loyal and energetic support of the leader’s agenda and a willingness to challenge the leader’s policies or behaviors if they are harmful to the common purpose. Followership takes courage- sometimes more courage than leadership. Followers should be aware that leaders have earned their place because of their experience and knowledge. They should respect the role the leader has earned. There are times when a follower may disagree with a decision being made and will express concern. But once the decision has been made, ...

7 Flawed Sentences Redeemed by Commas

7 Flawed Sentences Redeemed by Commas 7 Flawed Sentences Redeemed by Commas 7 Flawed Sentences Redeemed by Commas By Mark Nichol The simple insertion, deletion, or relocation of a comma (or two) can alter a sentences meaning, so when writing or editing a sentence, carefully analyze it to determine whether the punctuation (or lack thereof) serves its intended meaning or whether it creates grammatical confusion. The following examples illustrate the significant difference punctuation can make; discussion after each sentence explains the problem and provides a solution. 1. Relaxed capital and leverage requirements are favorable to depository institutions as they allow institutions to put more of their capital to work and may even provide consumers with more access to credit. Punctuation helps readers recognize the meaning of a word that, in identical syntactical arrangements, can have distinct meanings. In this sentence, as appears to function as a synonym for while in the sense of referencing a simultaneous occurrence. However, the clause that follows as is an explanation- here, as is a synonym for because- and is therefore a dependent clause, which means that it must be preceded by punctuation: â€Å"Relaxed capital and leverage requirements are favorable to depository institutions, as they allow institutions to put more of their capital to work and may even provide consumers with more access to credit.† 2. It is a never-ending campaign to stay in step with adversaries, and wherever possible, anticipate their next move. In this sentence, the intended function of the commas is to set off a parenthetical phrase, but the placement of the first comma erroneously suggests that its purpose is to separate two independent clauses. The parenthetical phrase is â€Å"wherever possible,† not â€Å"and wherever possible†- test this fact by temporarily omitting each alternative from the sentence and seeing which statement is still grammatically valid- so the first comma must follow, not precede, and: â€Å"It is a never-ending campaign to stay in step with adversaries and, wherever possible, anticipate their next move.† (Because the phrase that follows and is not an independent clause- there is no subject- no additional comma is required before the conjunction.) 3. I consider movies, such as Get Out, examples of artwork that provoke discussion about our society. The commas bracketing â€Å"such as Get Out† imply that that phrase is expendable- that the sentence is valid without it. But the writer is referring to a category of movies that the film Get Out exemplifies in some quality, so that phrase is essential to the sentence and therefore cannot be treated as a parenthetical phrase: â€Å"I consider movies such as Get Out examples of artwork that provokes discussion about our society.† (If movies were qualified with an adjective, as in the phrase â€Å"movie that allegorically pertain to racism,† then â€Å"such as Get Out† would be valid as a parenthetical phrase because it suggests an example of a specified category of film, rather than just one film in the all-encompassing category of â€Å"movies.†) 4. Getting the right information, to the right people, at the right time, is intrinsically valuable to any organization. The segmentation of the first three phrases in this sentence is unnecessary and obtrusive. The writer of this sentence assumes that punctuation is required to distinguish the three factors referenced sequentially in this sentence, but the prepositions to and at serve this function: â€Å"Getting the right information to the right people at the right time is intrinsically valuable to any organization.† 5. Directors can’t get the information they need to make critical decisions because the company’s ability to effectively measure and report on key risks is limited. If this sentence continued after limited, with an alternative explanation for why directors can’t get the information they need (following a semicolon), then the phrase â€Å"because . . . is limited† would be essential to the sentence. But in the sentence as written, â€Å"because . . . is limited† is a subordinate (and therefore nonessential) clause, and it should be set off from the main clause (â€Å"directors . . . critical decisions†): â€Å"Directors can’t get the information they need to make critical decisions, because the company’s ability to effectively measure and report on key risks is limited.† 6. It’s kind of scary actually. When an adverb appearing at the end of a sentence is intrinsic to the sentence, do not include intervening punctuation, as in â€Å"We visit them annually.† (Without annually, the sentence â€Å"We visit them† would not convey the intended information- the frequency with which they visit- so annually is essential to the statement.) But in this case, actually merely serves as an informal form of emphasis- it merely strengthens the admission but does not add meaning- so it is set off from the main clause: â€Å"It’s kind of scary, actually.† (Also, actually should be set off if it precedes the main clause- â€Å"Actually, it’s kind of scary†- but no punctuation is necessary if the adverb is inserted within the clause: â€Å"It’s actually kind of scary.†) 7. What’s different is they came of age at a difficult time. The subject of this sentence is they, and what comes before is a dependent introductory clause, which must be set off from the main clause by a comma: â€Å"What’s different is, they came of age at a difficult time.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Possessive of Proper Names Ending in SThe Difference Between "will" and "shall"10 Terms for the Common People

Creative narration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Creative narration - Essay Example As good practice, all people that were coming had to queue in order to create and maintain order since the doctor did not have many aides; in fact, most of the people have health challenges that would not have required the doctor to have a nurse or anther aide. When I arrived at the hospital, I found people calmly settled and having their health needs being attended to. Mr. Williamson winked when he saw me because we were great friends; I also worked in the same hospital but in a different department. Then as the process was smoothly taking place, something happened that disrupted the doctor. A small boy came running and shouting for the doctor’s attention, other people had tried to urge her to calm down first before raising her sentiments. However, the boy seemed to be in a much hurry and went on to shout for the attention of Mr. Williamson. Mr. Williamson was always known to be an arrogant doctor especially to people that he thought were below her in terms of experience or on other careers. This ego made him shout back at the boy, urging him to make the queue and wait for is turn like any other people. My efforts to have the doctor give the boy a minute because he may have wanted to communicate an emergency issue of concern. Persistent efforts of the people on the queue to make the boy explain his concerns bore not fruit because the boy insisted that he wanted to speak to Michael’s Father, who was Mr. Williamson. Soon, the people on the queue were attended to; it was now the boy’s turn to have his issue addressed. I moved closer to listen to the boy’s concern because by this time, he was almost sobbing, with tears rolling down her chicks. The boy explained that the crocodile in the river that flowed behind the hospital had attacked Michael when they were playing and he had run to call for assistance from his father. The doctor was dumb-founded, lacking words to

English class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

English class - Essay Example Even the quadratic formula would beat this. One day as I was sitting there, observing people, I noticed two guys walking quickly away from the cafeteria, looking around like they were going to escape from prison or something, and then quickly disappear into the woods. I had no idea where they had gone but I was curious. The next day at lunch I looked for them again. It seems like they saw me looking, and one of them approached me. We had a brief conversation and he told me that they had been hanging out in the woods behind the school to skip class. He asked me if I wanted to join them. While it was out of character for me to skip class a number of things went through my mind. I had experienced a difficult time making friends at the new school and I believed that skipping classes with these individuals might help develop a friendship with them. On a deeper level I also had begun to become frustrated at my current situation and school environment. At not being able to fit in to the sch ool and meet people I had begun to neglect my studies and feel that school was not important. I had started to fail seeing the ways that school would contribute to my long-term benefit. With these thoughts in mind I entered the woods scaled the fence surrounding the school and skipped class with the two people I had just met. As we made our way back towards the school and climbed the fence we had originally gone over, I glanced in front of me and the school’s resource officer was standing there watching us. He later claimed that he had followed us since the moment we entered the woods. I thought we would only get in trouble for skipping, but after we had climbed the fence we had entered private property and the owner had called the school complaining. The officer arrested us for trespassing. I sat in the front office for a long time, outside and watched the other students walk through. Eventually we went into see the school resource officer. It was a terrifying experience as I had never been in serious trouble before. The others actually stuck up for me and one of them even said that it wasn’t my idea and that they convinced me to do it. It didn’t make much difference though, we were all caught together and that was what mattered. Since I had no prior problems in school I only received community service and a two-day suspension. The two guys I went with were expelled. They had to transfer to another school and I haven’t heard from them since. As I sat in the lobby of the discipline office I learned that my frustration with life wouldn’t be overcome with stupid rebellious activities, and that I needed to accept personal responsibility for my own life and stop looking to others to give it meaning and save me from frustration. From then on I learned and understood that life is what you make it. When considering stories such as this that shaped my personal development I learned that the story we tell ourselves is constantly chang ed in ways that coincide with recent developments in our lives. However, there was something about this instance that not only shifted my perceptions towards a different, or ‘better’ path, but also removed so much of the elements of my past life. It was this experience that expanded my

Poets of the 18th century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Poets of the 18th century - Essay Example Likewise, Gulliver's adventures in Laputa illustrate Swift's negative opinion of the general value of science produced by the Royal Society as the scientists and doctors of the floating city continuously spend their time involved in meaningless pursuits that bring benefit to no one. Finally, in his fourth voyage, Gulliver's encounter with the Houyhnhnms creates a strong commentary on the true picture of human nature in which the conception of war has not even been considered, much less worked out to the fine science Gulliver describes to his astonished hosts. "Ironically Gulliver's Travels, a book thought by most people as a charming book of adventure popular with children, is one of the most powerful attacks ever made against man's wickedness and stupidity. Swift's book is full of personal, literary and political allusions" (Taralunga, 2003: 135). William Blake's poems typically focused on aspects of the human spirit as it comes in contact with authority figures, whether they be government or religious, as well as the joyful celebration of his idea of Christianity and humanity. As a result, his poems provided many with inspiration and hope in times that seemed overly chaotic as revolutions of various types were occurring on virtually every front and power structures were struggling to hold onto whatever controls they could. In "London" for example, a poem describing the way in which the human spirit had been shackled in 1794 when the poem had been written, Blake expresses an abiding belief in the unchristian nature of the restrictions on freedoms being experienced by the British people. The French Revolution had just occurred and sentiment in Britain had reached an all-time low as expressed in lines such as "How the chimney-sweepers cry" (9) and "' the hapless Soldiers sigh / Runs in blood down Palace walls" (11-12) in which it can be seen that even time-honored occupations such as chimney sweeps and soldiers had fallen into disrespect and despair. The red walls of the street depicted in the poem's illustration provide a subtle imagery of the British soldiers' and, by extension, the rest of the British population's plight. Although he is describing physical situations, "A mark in every face I meet / Marks of weakness, marks of woe" (3-4), he makes it clear that he is also discussing the state of the souls of people he meets, "In every voice; in every ban / The mind-forg'd manacles I hear" (7-8). 7. Write about one of the poets specifically and the subjects / themes he is best known for: Blake's dual nature of man; Burns's view of human position or importance; Wordsworth's child / man connection; Coleridge's flights of imagination; Shelley's willingness to bare his soul or his

Importance of Discrete Mathematics in Computer Science

Importance of Discrete Mathematics in Computer Science Computer science is the study of problems, problem solving and the solutions that come out of the problem solving process, B. Miller and D. Ranum (2013). A computer scientist goal is to develop an algorithm, a step by step list of instructions in solving a problem. Algorithms are finite processes that if followed will solve the problem Discrete mathematics is concerned with structures which take on a discrete value often infinite in nature. Just as the real-number system plays a crucial role in continuous mathematics, integers are the cornerstone in discrete mathematics. Discrete mathematics provides excellent modelling tools for analysing real-world phenomena that varies in one state or another and is a vital tool used in a wide range of applications, from computers to telephone call routing and from personnel assignments to genetics, E.R. Scheinerman (2000) cited in W. J. Rapaport 2013). The difference between discrete mathematics and other disciplines is the basic foundation on proof as its modus operandi for determining truth, whereas science for example, relies on carefully analysed experience. According to J. Barwise and J. Etchemendy, (2000), a proof is any reasoned argument accepted as such by other mathematicians. Discrete mathematics is the background behind many computer operations (A. Purkiss 2014, slide 2) and is therefore essential in computer science. According to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000), discrete mathematics is an essential part of the educational curriculum (Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, p. 31). K. H Rosen (2012) cites several important reasons for studying discrete mathematics including the ability to comprehend mathematical arguments. In addition he argues discrete mathematics is the gateway to advanced courses in mathematical sciences. This essay will discuss the importance of discrete mathematics in computer science. Furthermore, it will attempt to provide an understanding of important related mathematical concepts and demonstrate with evidence based research why these concepts are essential in computer science. The essay will be divided into sections. Section one will define and discuss the importance of discrete mathematics. The second section will focus on and discuss discrete structures and relationships with objects. The set theory would be used as an example and will give a brief understanding of the concept. The third section will highlight the importance of mathematical reasoning. Finally, the essay will conclude with an overview of why discrete mathematics is essential in computer science. Discrete Mathematics According to K. H. Rosen, (2012) discrete mathematics has more than one purpose but more importantly it equips computer science students with logical and mathematical skills. Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematics that underpins computer science, with a focus on discrete structures, for example, graphs, trees and networks, K H Rosen (2012). It is a contemporary field of mathematics widely used in business and industry. Often referred to as the mathematics of computers, or the mathematics used to optimize finite systems (Core-Plus Mathematics Project 2014). It is an important part of the high school mathematics curriculum. Discreet mathematics is a branch of mathematics dealing with objects that can assume only distinct separated values (mathworld wolfram.com). Discrete mathematics is used in contrast with continuous mathematics, a branch of mathematics dealing with objects that can vary smoothly including calculus (mathworld wolfram.com). Discrete mathematics includes graph theory, theory of computation, congruences and recurrence relations to name but a few of its associated topics (mathworld wolfram.com). Discrete mathematics deals with discrete objects which are separated from each other. Examples of discrete objects include integers, and rational numbers. A discrete object has known and definable boundaries which allows the beginning and the end to be easily identified. Other examples of discrete objects include buildings, lakes, cars and people. For many objects, their boundaries can be represented and modelled as either continuous or discrete, (Discrete and Continuous Data, 2008). A major reason discrete mathematics is essential for the computer scientist, is, it allows handling of infinity or large quantity and indefiniteness and the results from formal approaches are reusable. Discrete Structures To understand discrete mathematics a student must have a firm understanding of how to work with discrete structures. These discrete structures are abstract mathematical structures used to represent discrete objects and relationships between these objects. The discrete objects include sets, relations, permutations and graphs. Many important discrete structures are built using sets which are collections of objects K H Rosen (2012). Sets As stated by Cantor (1895: 282) cited in J. L. Bell (1998) a set is a collection of definite, well- differentiated objects. K. H Rosen (2012) states discrete structures are built using sets, which are collections of objects used extensively in counting problems; relations, sets of ordered pairs that represent relationships between objects, graphs, sets of vertices and edges that connect vertices and edges that connect vertices; and finite state machines, used to model computing machines. Sets are used to group objects together and often have similar properties. For example, all employees working for the same organisation make up a set. Furthermore those employees who work in the accounts department form a set that can be obtained by taking the elements common to the first two collections. A set is an unordered collection of objects, called elements or members of the set. A set is said to contain its elements. To denote that a is an element of the set A, we write a â‚ ¬ A. For example the set O of odd positive integers less than 10 can be expressed by O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Another example is, {x |1 ≠¤ x ≠¤ 2 and x is a real number.} represents the set of real numbers between 1 and 2 and {x | x is the square of an integer and x ≠¤ 100} represents the set {0. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100}, (www.cs.odu.edu). Mathematical Reasoning Logic is the science for reasoning, Copi, (1971) and a collection of rules used in carrying out logical reasoning. The foundation for logic was laid down by the British mathematician George Boole. Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning and of all automated reasoning. It has practical applications to the design of computing machines, to the specification of systems, to artificial intelligence, to computer programming, to programming languages and to other areas of computer science, K H Rosen, (2012 page 1). Mathematical logic, starts with developing an abstract model of the process of reasoning in mathematics, D. W. Kucker page 1. Following the development of an abstract model a study of the model to determine some of its properties is necessary. The aim of logic in computer science is to develop languages to model the situations we encounter as computer science professionals, in such a way that we can reason about them formally. Reasoning about situations means constructing arguments about them; we want to do this formally, so that the arguments are valid and can be defended rigorously, or executed on a machine. In understanding mathematics we must understand what makes a correct mathematical argument, that is, a proof. As stated by C. Rota (1997) a proof is a sequence of steps which leads to the desired conclusion Proofs are used to verify that computer programs produce the correct result, to establish the security of a system and to create artificial intelligence. Logic is interested in true or false statements and how the truth or falsehood of a statement can be determined from other statements (www.cs.odu.edu). Logic is represented by symbols to represent arbitrary statements. For example the following statements are propositions â€Å"grass is green† and â€Å"2 + 2 = 5†. The first proposition has a truth value of â€Å"true† and the second â€Å"false†. According to S. Waner and S. R Constenoble (1996) a proposition is any declarative sentence which is either true or false. Many in the computing community have expressed the view that logic is an essential topic in the field of computer science (e.g., Galton, 1992; Gibbs Tucker, 1986; Sperschneider Antoniou, 1991). There has also been concern that the introduction of logic to computer science students has been and is being neglected (e.g., Dijkstra, 1989; Gries, 1990). In their article â€Å"A review of several programs for the teaching of logic†, Goldson, Reeves and Bornat (1993) stated: There has been an explosion of interest in the use of logic in computer science in recent years. This is in part due to theoretical developments within academic computer science and in part due to the recent popularity of Formal Methods amongst software engineers. There is now a widespread and growing recognition that formal techniques are central to the subject and that a good grasp of them is essential for a practising computer scientist. (p. 373). In his paper â€Å"The central role of mathematical logic in computer science†, Myers (1990) provided an extensive list of topics that demonstrate the importance of logic to many core areas in computer science and despite the fact that many of the topics in Myers list are more advanced than would be covered in a typical undergraduate program, the full list of topics covers much of the breadth and depth of the curriculum guidelines for computer science, Tucker (1990). The model program report (IEEE, 1983) described discrete mathematics as a subject area of mathematics that is crucial to computer science and engineering. The discrete mathematics course was to be a pre or co requisite of all 13 core subject areas except Fundamentals of Computing which had no pre requisites. However in Shaw’s (1985) opinion the IEEE program was strong mathematically but disappointing due to a heavy bias toward hardware and its failure to expose basic connections between hardware and software. In more recent years a task force had been set up to deve lop computer science curricula with the creation of a document known as the Denning Report, (Denning, 1989). The report became instrumental in developing computer science curriculum. In a discussion of the vital role of mathematics in the computing curriculum, the committee stated, mathematical maturity, as commonly attained through logically rigorous mathematics courses is essential to successful mastery of several fundamental topics in computing, (Tucker, 1990, p.27). It is generally agreed that students in undergraduate computer science programs should have a strong basis in mathematics and attempts to recommend which mathematics courses should be required, the number of mathematics courses and when the courses should be taken have been the source of much controversy (Berztiss, 1987; Dijkstra, 1989; Gries, 1990; Ralston and Shaw, 1980; Saiedian 1992). A central theme in the controversy within the computer science community has been the course discrete mathematics. In 1989, the Mathematical Association of America published a report about discrete mathematics at the undergraduate level (Ralston, 1989). The report made some recommendations including offering discrete mathematics courses with greater emphasis on problem solving and symbolic reasoning (Ralston, 1989; Myers, 1990). Conclusion The paper discussed the importance of discrete mathematics in computer science and its significance as a skill for the aspiring computer scientist. In addition some examples of this were highlighted including its usefulness in modelling tools to analyse real world events. This includes its wide range of applications such as computers, telephones, and other scientific phenomena. The next section looked at discrete structures as a concept of abstract mathematical structures and the development of set theory a sub topic within discrete mathematics. The essay concluded with a literature review of evidence based research in mathematical reasoning where various views and opinions of researchers, academics and other stakeholders were discussed and explored. The review makes clear of the overwhelming significance and evidence stacked in favour for students of computer science courses embarking on discrete mathematics. Overall, it is generally clear that pursuit of a computer science course w ould most definitely need the associated attributes in logical thinking skills, problem solving skills and a thorough understanding of the concepts. In addition the review included views of an increased interest in the use of logic in computer science in recent years. Furthermore formal techniques have been acknowledged and attributed as central to the subject of discrete mathematics in recent years. References A. Purkiss 2014, Lecture 1: Course Introduction and Numerical Representation, Birkbeck University. B. Miller and D. Ranum 2013. Problem Solving with Algorithms and Data Structures: accessed on [18.01.15] Berztiss, A. (1987). A mathematically focused curriculum for computer science. Communications of the ACM, 30 (5), 356–365. Copi, I. M. (1979). Symbolic Logic (5th ed.). New York: Macmillan Core-Plus Mathematics Project 2014: Discrete Mathematics available at http://www.wmich.edu/cpmp/parentresource/discrete.html [accessed on 25.01.14] 6. D W Kucker Notes on Mathematical Logic; University of Maryland, College Park. Available at http://www.math.umd.edu/~dkueker/712.pdf Accessed on [24.01.15] Denning, P. J. (chair). (1989). Computing as a discipline. Communications of the ACM, 32 (1), 9–23. Dijkstra, E. W. (1989). On the cruelty of really teaching computing science. Communications of the ACM, 32 (12), 1398–1404. Discrete and Continuous Data, (2008). Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. 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